對聯知識及入門、句法與結構及節奏與風格

對聯知識及入門、句法與結構及節奏與風格

（作者：光重皇）

對聯，俗稱對子，雅稱楹聯(因多用於張貼、懸掛、雕刻在廳堂門柱上)。當代聯人陸偉廉將它定義爲："對聯是由兩組文義相關的對句所組成的聯合體"。其中，第一組稱上聯，第二組稱下聯。與駢文、格律詩詞一樣，對聯也是我國漢文學所特有的一種文學形式。如日本著名漢學家鹽谷溫博士所說，"對聯是中國文學的特産物"。漢字爲表意文字，通稱方塊字，具有一字一體一音一義的獨立語特徵(少數異體字、破音字、多義字，並不否定在具體的語言環境下，漢字只能是一字一體一音一義)，故由漢字構成的漢文學，獨具對稱均勻之美。從文字的運用來看，對聯不愧是開在漢文學之樹上的一朵奇葩。它比較集中地體現了漢字的特色，是漢字文化的一個重要組成部分。作爲一種文學形式和文化現象，對聯基本上只存在於漢民族文化圈內，具有濃厚的民族特色。

　　對聯是一種實用性很強的文學形式，不管是典雅的、通俗的還是雅俗共賞的對聯，將其張貼、懸掛、雕刻在門柱廳堂，都能營造出一種祥和、喜慶，或者高雅、莊嚴的氣氛與格調。因此，自從對聯産生時起，它就與人們的日常生活息息相關，並逐漸融入了中國人的民間習俗之中，成爲中國傳統文化不可缺少的一部分。一般認爲，最早出現的對聯是春聯，而春聯起源於桃符。從晉代至唐代，對聯這一文學形式便已經萌芽並逐漸發展。不過，人們通常將五代時蜀後主孟昶於西元963年歲除日題在桃符板上的一副春聯：

　　新年納餘慶

　　佳節號長春

　　作爲春聯之發軔。直至明清，對聯逐漸盛行，並延續至今。總之，濃厚的傳統性與實用性，是對聯賴以生存和發展的土壤。

　　對聯作爲一種獨特的文學形式，不僅實用性很強，而且藝術要求也很高。其文學藝術風格總的來說可概括爲＂短小精悍＂。對聯的篇幅往往不長，單邊字數多爲幾個字到十幾個字，上百字、上千字的長聯，並不多見。正因如此，一方面，它在格律上要求非常嚴謹，不是隨便兩組字數相等的話就能湊成的。如果沒有嚴謹的格律，那麽，作爲一種獨特文學形式的對聯，其獨特性、藝術性將蕩然無存，其藝術生命力也難以持久。因爲對聯最本質的藝術特徵是其對稱性，而只有嚴謹的格律，才能保證它的對稱性。另一方面，作爲一種形式小巧的文學體裁，其內容應當是精悍的，應當包含盡可能豐富的思想涵義。在這個意義上，一副對聯如果僅有形式而缺乏內涵，那麽，就難免淪爲一種＂文字遊戲＂、＂雕蟲小技＂。反過來，好的對聯則有＂詩中之詩＂的美譽。總之，形式與內容的精煉性是對聯又一個重要的藝術特徵。

　　另外，對聯還是一種具有較強的啓蒙性的文學形式。學習寫對聯，對於我們學習漢語言文學，特別是有關字音、韻律、詞性、語法修辭等方面的基礎知識，都有很大的幫助。欣賞與寫作對聯，是學習漢語的好形式。

　　總之，對聯的文化藝術特徵大體上可概括爲：民族性，傳統性，實用性，對稱性，精煉性，啓蒙性，等。

　　(二)

　　對聯是一種講究格律的文學形式，要欣賞與寫作對聯，必須瞭解其最基本的格律要求。所謂對聯格律(簡稱聯律)，指對聯中有關平仄、詞性、語法修辭，以及書寫張貼等方面的格式與規律，其核心是對仗。對聯的基本格律可概括成以下幾點：

　　1.  字數相等，內容相關。

　　從字數來看，原則上，只要上下聯字數相等，不論多少字數均可。如上下聯各四個字，則稱四言聯，等等。但在實踐中，多爲四字以上，因漢字一般需要四字以上才能組成句子。從內容上看，一副對聯的上下聯之間，內容應當相關，也就是意思要相互襯托或相互銜接，以起到相反相成或相輔相成的效果。大多數對聯上下聯之間的內容

　　屬於互相襯托的關係。這種襯托或者是從相同的角度互相映襯、互相補充(即所謂"正對")，或者是從相反的角度互相反襯、互相對照(即所謂"反對")，"正對"如：

　　心蓮清淨

　　性海圓融 (注：所引對聯未注明作者或出處的，均出自本書，下同。)

　　"反對"如：

　　心平積福

　　欲重招殃

　　有少數對聯上下聯之間的內容屬於互相銜接的關係(即所謂"串對"，或稱"流水對")，也就是上下聯兩個分句共同構成一個複句，上下聯存在一種連貫、遞進、選擇、轉折、因果、假設、條件、目的等複合關係。當然，這種互相銜接同時也是互相襯托的。如：

　　若無前世心中毒

　　哪有今生意外災

　　又如：

　　除了香甜苦辣鹹酸澀

　　無非柴米油鹽醬醋茶

　　如果上下聯內容毫不相關，會使人覺得非常生硬與滑稽，則起不到對聯應有的文學效果。

　　除非是一種特殊的對聯形式，即所謂"無情對"。它指的是上下聯形式上(字面上)對仗工整，而內容上(意義上)卻並不相關，從而造成一種特殊的效果。如：

　　三星白蘭地

　　五月黃梅天 (常用聯)

　　庭前花始放

　　閣下李先生 (常用聯)

　　公門桃李爭榮日

　　法國荷蘭比利時 (常用聯)

　　樹已半枯休縱斧

　　果然一點不相干 (常用聯)

　　2.  詞性相當、概念相當、結構相稱、節奏相稱。

　　所謂詞性相當，指上下聯相對的詞語性質(從嚴格意義上說，是每個字的詞性)應當盡可能相同或相近。如名詞對名詞、動詞對動詞、形容詞對形容詞，以及連詞對連詞、副詞對副詞，等等。如：

　　大行絕俗忘榮辱

　　至道無情空是非

　　如果從每個字來看，"大"與"至"、"榮"與"是"、"辱"與"非"是形容詞，"行"與"道"、"俗"與"情"是名詞，"絕"與"無"、"忘"與"空"是動詞。但在實踐中，對虛詞的要求比較寬鬆，一般能夠虛詞對虛詞即可。對實詞的要求較爲嚴格，詞性不同一般不能相對。但那些詞性比較接近的、或者詞性能夠兼通的實詞，也還是允許相對的，如名詞和代詞、某些動詞和形容詞之間。當然，詞性相同屬工對，詞性相近或相通屬寬對。

　　更嚴格一點說，不但詞性要相當，而且詞語所代表的概念也要相當，也即要盡可能相類似或相對襯。這也涉及到對聯的寬工問題。若上下聯兩個詞語共同所屬概念的範疇越小，對仗就越工，反之則越寬。如："中國"對"雄鶏"，其共同範疇是事物;"曉日"對"雄鶏"，就縮小爲自然物;"小草"對"雄鶏"，就縮小爲生物;"駿馬"對"雄鶏"，就縮小爲動物;"老鴨"對"雄鶏"，就縮小爲鳥綱以至家禽。再者，若上下聯兩個詞語之間，概念關係越互相矛盾(即所謂"矛盾概念")，對仗就越工，"有"對"無"、"真"對"假"、"生"對"死"、"物質"對"精神"、"自然"對"社會"等，就屬於工對。

　　所謂結構相稱，指上下聯語句的語法結構應當相同或相似，也即主謂結構對主謂結構、動賓結構對動賓結構、偏正結構對偏正結構、並列結構對並列結構，等等。如：

　　勝行嚴佛土

　　正法利人間

　　上下聯皆爲主謂賓結構。其中，＂勝行＂對＂正法＂、＂佛土＂對＂人間＂，又皆爲偏正結構。再如：

　　軟首妙光，威名顯赫

　　雄獅利劍，寶相莊嚴

　　"軟首妙光"對"雄獅利劍"，皆爲並列結構;"威名顯赫"對"寶相莊嚴"，皆爲主謂結構;"軟首"對"雄獅"、"妙光"與"利劍"、"威名"對"寶相"，又皆爲偏正結構。

　　另外，上下聯之間還應當節奏相稱。對聯行文多以二字(有時也以一字或三字)爲一節奏。節奏相稱，就是應當盡可能同步。如：

　　漏盡－飛身－去

　　心空－及第－歸

　　又如：

　　以－神通力－護持－正法

　　設－孟蘭盆－超度－慈親

　　總之，上下聯的用詞造句，在詞性、語法結構和節奏上，應儘量相當或相稱，以保持形式上的協調與工整。但這些要求在實踐中還是允許適當放寬的。個別情況下，還可以有所變通。如：

　　五十三參，遍訪良師求正智

　　百城煙水，廣行悲願踐初心

　　其中，＂五十三參＂對"百城煙水＂，是以同一個典故的兩個常用語相對。單從詞性、結構等形式方面來看，嚴格說是不合聯律，但從內容來看，則屬於"義對"，是允許的。

　　３．平仄協調。

　　平仄協調，狹義地說，就是指對聯在音調上的兩大要求：平仄相對與平仄交替。廣義地說，也包含句腳安排等其他一些平仄問題。要弄清這些問題，首先必須區分什麽是平聲、什麽是仄聲。這又有兩種劃分標準。在對聯創作中，一般是運用＂古四聲"，即古漢語將音調分爲平、上、去、入四聲，除平聲外，上聲、去聲、入聲皆爲仄聲。現在，也有少數人運用＂新四聲＂，即現代漢語將音調分爲陰平、陽平、上聲、去聲四聲。其中，陰平、陽平爲平聲，上聲、去聲爲仄聲。兩種聲韻的不同，關鍵在於入聲字。入聲字的掌握和識別，大體上還是有規律可循，在此恕不贅述。對初學者來說，

　　最簡單易行的辦法是先在運用時借助工具書。據作者個人的經驗，在運用中比較容易熟悉入聲字。不過，要注意的是，雖然上述兩種用法可並行不悖，但在同一副對聯中，不能同時混用。

　　現在再回過頭來談平仄協調的問題。所謂平仄相對，就是上下聯的音步要平聲對仄聲、仄聲對平聲。反之，如果平聲對平聲，仄聲對仄聲，就叫平仄失對，又叫同聲相對。音步與節奏大體上是同一概念，一般來說，一個節奏即是一個音步。由於對聯脫胎於格律詩，因此，在平仄方面，對聯與格律詩中的對仗句基本相同。而且，對音步的安排也有＂一三五不論，二四六分明＂之說。因爲在實際上，並不一定要求整個音步平仄相對，而只是要求在音步位上平仄相對。所謂音步位，就是每個音步的末位字，這是決定整個音步性質的重點聲。由於漢字的絕大多數音步爲二字音步，因此，音步位一般指的就是每句的第二、四、六等字數。所以便有了"一三五不論，二四六分明"。如：

　　悲欣交集

　　事理雙行 (注：平聲用""表示，仄聲用""表示，下同。)

　　又如：

　　火移薪盡業猶在

　　身壞神迷行不亡

　　其中，一三五不一定平仄相對，二四六皆平仄相對，即屬工對。不過，並非所有的音步位都在二四六位置上，主要是由於，對聯行文的格式除了以律詩中的對仗句式爲主以外，還有詞曲文賦等格式以及領字的存在。如：

　　厭娑婆苦域

　　弘淨土法門

　　觀美女華瓶盛糞

　　嘆凡夫甘願投泥

　　直心乃萬行之本

　　貪欲爲諸苦之源

　　深心勤習真言宗教義

　　全力弘揚大手印法門

　　講到平仄相對，必須提一下對聯的句腳。一副對聯不管長短如何，也不管倒數第二個字是平聲還是仄聲，都要求上聯仄聲收尾，即最後一個字(句腳)應當是仄聲;下聯則要求平聲收尾。一般不能上聯平聲收尾，下聯仄聲收尾;更不能同聲收尾。另外，由多個短句組成的長聯，還要注意每個短句的句腳不能全都是仄聲或全都是平聲，而應當有所錯落，

　　至於這種錯落具體如何安排，則尚無定論。不過，運用"馬蹄韻"撰長聯是一種比較好的句腳安排方式。

　　所謂平仄交替，它與平仄相對實際上是同一個問題的兩個方面，指的是一個句子自身的音步之間，平仄應交替使用，否則就是平仄失替。只有每句的最後一個字(句腳)，可以不考慮交替問題。如：

　　佛身遠過世間望

　　妙法不堪小智聽

　　又如：

　　無所從來何有相

　　得成於忍不生心

　　在平仄問題上還有一些禁忌，如忌"三平尾"或"三仄尾"，忌"孤平"或"孤仄"等，留待下麵再談。

　　總的來看，對聯在平仄協調方面是有講究的，寫作對聯不能不講平仄。如果說，字數相等、詞性與概念相當、語法結構與節奏相稱，賦予了對聯整齊美、嚴謹美、對襯美、結構美、節奏美等審美特徵的話，那麽，平仄協調則賦予了對聯音韻美這個重要審美特徵。當然，有時爲了不以辭害意，個別地方出現平仄失對或平仄失替，亦可通融。

　　4.  幾個禁忌。

　　除了以上三個基本要求外，對聯在格律上還有幾個禁忌，即幾種應儘量避免的情況：

　　"三平尾"或"三仄尾";"孤平"或"孤仄";"同位重字"和"異位重字";"同義相對";等等。

　　"三平尾"或"三仄尾"，指的是在一個句子的最末三個字，都是平聲或都是仄聲。如"依法修行能入道"，若將"能"改爲"可"就變成了三仄尾。又如"緣深因厚坐蓮台"，若將"坐"改爲"登"，就變成了三平尾。

　　"孤平"或"孤仄"，指的是在五個字以上的句子中，只有一個平聲字，或只有一個仄聲字。如"無言乃入門"，若改爲"無言而入門"，就是"孤仄";又如"大日心光遍照"，若改爲"大日智光遍照"，就是"孤平"(全平格或全仄格例外)。

　　對聯中允許出現疊字或重字，如"世事紛紛"對"紅塵滾滾"、"惟覺者能聽能會"對"嘆醉人不醒不知"。但對聯中應儘量避免"同位重字"和"異位重字"。所謂"同位重字"，就是以同一個字在同一個位置相對，如"法界"對"世界"、"成道"對"成魔"。不過，有些虛詞("之乎者也"之類)的同位重字是允許的，如：

　　漏網之魚，世間時有

　　脫天之鳥，宇內尚無

　　諸佛洞觀實相而無住

　　衆生遊戲虛空而不知

　　所謂"異位重字"，就是同一個字出現在上下聯不同的位置。如：

　　見諸法空虛，此身去直超彼岸

　　念衆生平等，三人行必有我師

　　若將上聯的"直超彼岸"改爲"已無後有"，就與下聯"必有我師"的"有"異位重字。又如：

　　.  .  .  .  .  .  若陶匠摶泥，掌中視果

　　.  .  .  .  .  .  勝樵夫觀弈，夢裏入槐

　　若將上聯的"掌中視果"改爲"掌中觀果"，就與下聯"樵夫觀弈"的"觀"異位重字。當然，有一種比較特殊的"異位互重"格式是允許的，如：

　　萬法一心，空不異色

　　一心萬法，色即是空

　　聯中的"一"與"萬"、"心"與"法"、"空"與"色"，便是"異位互重"格式。

　　所謂"同義相對"，通常又稱爲"合掌"，指上下聯相對的語句意思完全雷同，如"赤縣"對"神州"、"旭日"對"朝陽"、"史冊"對"汗青"。

　　5.  其它。

　　對聯的寫作與欣賞，還有一些相對次要的格律和比較獨特的修辭方法，如借對、自對、嵌字、回文、集句，以及對聯的橫批、對聯書寫和張貼的格式，等等。下面對以上提到的問題逐一做個簡單的介紹。

　　借對又稱假對，這是詞性上寬工轉化的一種方法，指句中詞性和詞語的含義雖非工對，但借助其另外的詞性和含義，則成工對。如：

　　灑漬尋常行處有

　　人生七十古來稀 (杜甫七律<<曲江>>中之頷聯)

　　"尋常"在此爲普通之意，屬形容詞，但古制"尋"、"常"又皆爲度量單位，屬量詞，借用此含義，則與數詞"七十"相對爲工。又如，"大而言之"對"志於道者"，其中，"言'與"道"在聯中的含義分別是作爲動詞和名詞的，但"言"亦有作爲名詞之含義，道亦有作爲動詞之含義，二者相對仍屬工整。不過，借對在對聯中用得不多，只是在需要變通時不得已而爲之。

　　自對，又稱"句中自對"，或"當句對"，指對聯中的字詞句，不僅上下聯相對仗，而且上聯和下聯自身之中(句中)也存在對仗。這就使對聯更加工穩，更增添了對襯美。如"真妄"對"終"，"真"與"妄"、"始"與"終"，就是句中自對。又如，"智愚"對"行止"、"榮辱"對'是非"、"微言大義"對"正法妙心"、"至高無上"對"微妙甚深"、"山色溪聲"對"晨鍾暮鼓"、"煩惱即菩提"對"微塵含刹土"、"如秤錘落井、礪石潭"對"縱仙術隱空、神通入海"等，不僅上下聯相對，而且句中也都有自對。句中自對的用法，在對聯(特別是長聯)中，運用得比較廣泛。

　　嵌字，也叫嵌名，指將特定的名稱(多爲人名、地名、事物名等專用名稱)嵌入對聯中一定的位置。這是一種運用得比較廣泛的方法。其具體方式很多，不下五十種。嵌字可分爲整嵌和分嵌。整嵌，就是將一個名稱不拆開而完整地嵌入，如<<題嵌四大天王>>

　　一聯：

　　多聞正法，以廣目光

　　增長善根，而持國土

　　分別將東方持國天王、南方增長天王、西方廣目天王、北方多聞天王嵌入聯中。又如

　　<<題嵌金剛手秘密主>>一聯：

　　金剛手握持秘密

　　勇猛心摧破無明

　　回文，又稱卷簾，指的是使用恰當的詞語構成對句，使之既能順讀，又能倒讀。由於回文格難度較大，因而運用得不太廣泛，但這種格式很能體現漢字的獨立語特點。回文格的具體方式也多種多樣。比較常見的有當句回文、倒句回文、倒章回文，等。當句回文，即順讀與倒讀完全一樣，如：

　　霧鎖山頭山鎖霧

　　天連水尾水連天 (佚名題廈門鼓浪嶼魚腹浦聯)

　　又如：

　　淨心真實真心淨

　　圓覺妙明妙覺圓

　　倒句回文，即將同一句子倒讀，而上下聯不變，如：

　　結同心果果心同結

　　開並蒂花 (常用婚聯)，倒讀即爲：花蒂並開

　　倒章回文，即通聯倒讀，下聯變爲上聯，上聯變爲下聯，如：

　　迢迢綠樹江天曉晴日海霞紅靄靄

　　靄靄紅霞海日晴 (佚名題武漢龜山聯)，倒讀即爲：曉天江樹綠迢迢

　　集句，指將現存的分散的句子，組合成對句。如果整副對聯(多爲短聯)完全由現存的句子組成，稱完全集句。如：

　　鹿歸於野

　　色即是空

　　上聯集自<<出曜經>>，下聯集自<<心經>>，就是完全集句。又如：

　　勸君更盡一杯酒

　　與爾同消萬古愁 (佚名集唐詩聯，上聯自王維<<渭城曲>>，下聯自李白<<將進酒>>)

　　反之，則稱不完全集句或單邊集句。如：

　　司馬不來，相逢何必曾相識

　　佳人安在，此時無聲勝有聲 (當代聯人羅元貞題九江琵琶亭聯)

　　上下聯中分別只有後半句是現存句子(引自白居易之詩<<琵琶行>>)，因此是不完全集句。又如：

　　世界微塵裏

　　人生大夢中

　　只有單邊是現存句子(上聯引自李商隱之詩<<北青蘿>>)，因此是單邊集句。嚴格來說，只有完全集句才能稱爲集句聯。

　　(三)

　　在著重介紹了對聯格律方面的一些要求後，接下來談談對聯分類的問題。對聯分類的標準可以有多種，實踐中主要有兩種。一是根據對聯的字數多少與句式結構，分成短聯和長聯。上下聯皆由兩個以上短句組成且字數較多的對聯，稱長聯;上下聯皆由一個短句組成的對聯，稱短聯。一般來說，長聯與短聯在字數上並無絕對的界限。二是根據對聯的內容和用途劃分。從理論上看，這種劃分更是難以嚴格而完全。依本人管見，大體上可分成春聯、賀聯、挽聯、專門聯四大類。

　　春聯，指的是用於春節，內容多爲一般的詠物、抒情、祝願。大多數春聯可以通用。

　　賀聯，指的是婚聯、壽聯、新居聯(喬遷聯)、節慶聯，以及其它內容上帶有某種特定祝賀性質的對聯等。賀聯突出的特徵是帶有特定的祝賀性質，其內容必須是表示良好祝願、喜慶吉祥的。賀聯有通用的，也有專用的。是否通用，要因聯而異，不可簡單地照搬照抄，以免出現張冠李戴的笑話。

　　挽聯，指的是用於弔唁亡人的對聯。其內容限於對亡人的弔唁、緬懷、評價、祝願。其風格一般是哀痛、肅穆、莊嚴的。當然，也有爲未亡人作挽聯或未亡人作自挽聯的，則另當別論。挽聯同樣有通用的和專用的，在實用中更要注意區分。

　　以上三種對聯是運用得最廣泛，最具有群衆性、民族性、傳統性、時節性和實用性的。此外，可以將那些內容和用途比較專門的對聯，籠而統之地歸納成專門聯這一類。

　　比如行業聯、名勝聯、帶有某種特定題贈性質的題贈聯，以及帶有學術性質或文學創作性質的學術聯等。當然，行業聯、名勝聯、題贈聯、學術聯等之間並沒有截然的界限。

　　如佛教對聯，可以看成是一種學術聯，若是將其張貼、懸掛、雕刻於風景名勝處，也可以看成名勝聯。

　　另外，根據對聯的寫作技巧或修辭手法，也可以將對聯分成嵌字聯、回文聯、謎語聯、集句聯、諧趣聯等等。但嚴格說，應分別稱之爲嵌字格、回文格、謎語格、集句集句格、諧趣格等。

對偶與對仗之分

對聯

開帖序﹕

對聯，雅曰「楹聯」，俗曰對子。自律詩頜頸而出，故求對仗，規平仄，上以仄尾，下以平收。

對聯字數不論，短則四言、六言、七言，長可至百言。

對聯或詠物，或言志，或寫景，或感懷，又分春聯、喜聯、壽聯、挽聯、格言聯、書畫聯、題贈聯、裝飾聯、行業聯、趣聯等。

對偶與對仗之分

對偶和對仗是兩種極爲相象的語言形式。所謂“相象”，是說它們相同之處較多而不同之點較少，所以區別起來就較爲困難，甚至連一些工具書對這兩個概念都解釋得含糊其辭，不甚了了。如《辭海》“對仗”條下注釋曰：“指詩文詞句的對偶。”陝西教育出版社的《古文自學辭典》則解釋“對偶”爲“修辭方法一種，……詩歌中叫‘對仗’。”如此以“對偶”注“對仗”，用“對仗”釋“對偶”的輾轉解說，造成了概念的混淆，其結果是使人誤以爲“對偶”與“對仗”是一回事，是一個概念的兩種稱謂。

那麽，究竟什麽是“對偶”?什麽是“對仗”?二者有什麽區別呢?

對偶，是一種修辭格。成對使用的兩個文句“字數相等，結構、詞性大體相同，意思相關”。這種對稱的語言方式，形成表達形式上的整齊和諧和內容上的相互映襯，具有獨特的藝術效果。

對仗，是指詩詞創作及對聯寫作時運用的一種特殊表現形式和手段。它要求詩詞聯句在對偶基礎上，上下句同一結構位置的詞語必須“詞性一致，平仄相對”，並力避上下句同一結構位置上重復使用同一詞語。格律詩詞的對仗使語言音韵和諧，增强了節奏感和音樂美，達到表現形式上的高度完美。因而格律詩詞的對仗要求也就甚爲嚴苛，符合上述原則的詩詞聯句便是對仗的；否則就是不對仗或對仗不工穩，這是詩詞創作所不允許的。

瞭解了對偶與對仗的特點，就能一般地區別什麽是對偶，什麽是對仗了。例如：

　　先天下之憂而憂，後天下之樂而樂。（范仲淹《岳陽樓記》）

這兩個句子各方面都符合對偶的要求，但由於其平仄不相對，音律欠和諧，並在同一結構位置重復使用了“天下”、“之”、“而”等這樣的詞語，所以不合對仗的要求。再請看下面這個例句：

　　沈舟側畔千帆過，病樹前頭萬木春。（劉禹錫《酬白樂天》）

這組聯句是原詩中的頸聯，無論哪個方面都完全合乎對仗原則，而且對得極爲工穩，是最爲典型的對仗聯句。

對偶與對仗其所以有這樣一些不同，主要是因爲它們是運用於不同文體的。由於不同的文體對各自表達的要求不同，所以對表達形式的要求也就不同。作爲修辭方法的對偶，常常被廣泛用於各種文體，其中古代散文和古體詩歌運用尤其頻繁。它整飭了語言，增强了語勢，而且兩個偶句互爲補充、相互映襯，使語言頗具形式美和表現力。對仗則是格律詩詞獨具的一種特殊創作技法。興起於隋唐的格律詩，嚴格要求律詩中的頷聯與頸聯必須對仗。這一方法同時也爲詞曲創作所采用；後來又被用於對聯撰寫。由於律詩詞曲的創作本身對語言運用有很高的藝術要求，講究煉字煉句，而對仗正好能够在相當程度上極大提高詩歌的表達技巧和審美情趣，具有較高的藝術性和表現力。對仗的這些特殊功能顯然是對偶力不能及的。可以說“對仗”是格律詩詞創作和欣賞的重要標準之一，自然也就成了非詩詞莫屬的專用術語。正因如此，所以格律詩詞中的對仗雖同時也符合對偶的標準要求，但鑒於“對仗”本身的特點，並且爲了有別於一般文體中的對偶，故而我們通常不以“對偶”稱之，而特稱之曰“對仗” 。

Leadership and the Psychology of Turnarounds

Leadership and the Psychology of Turnarounds

Building a Culture of Confidence and Success

Confidence is at the very heart of effective performance. The media continuously bombards us with very public examples of individuals and teams in the performing arts and professional sports arena buckling under pressure from crises of confidence when strong confidence is call for. For me, people like Susan Boyle and the England rugby squad spring to mind when I think about confidence ‘gaps’ that result in lacklustre performance and failure. So we know just how important this concept it. However, in our experience, few leaders and HR practitioners actually know how to build a culture of confidence and success.

Professor Rosabeth Moss Kanter from Harvard Business School says confidence comprises “positive expectations for favourable outcomes”. Rather than simply being something in people’s personal psychology, she maintains that it becomes embedded in everyday interactions and so, in the culture of teams and organisations. She asserts:

“On the way up, success creates positive momentum. People who believe they are likely to win are also likely to put in the extra effort at difficult moment to ensure that victory. On the way down, failure feeds on itself. As performance starts running on a positive or negative path, the momentum can be hard to stop. Growth cycles produce optimism, decline produces pessimism.”

So, how can we build and maintain a culture where success cycles are amplified and failure cycles are minimised?

Below are some practical approaches for leaders and HR practitioners:

Build Awareness of Strengths

Because people typically don’t get much feedback on their strengths during their life and career, they frequently don’t understand their strengths as well as their weaknesses. Many even experience anxiety, discomfort and embarrassment when talking about their strengths as they have learned to fear complacency, failure and being too different from the rest of the ‘pack’. There are many ways to build self-awareness about strengths, including reflecting more on one’s conscious experience, feedback from colleagues and other stakeholders and keeping a journal or diary of tasks that energise you. However, we have found that the best approach is to use an objective strengths profiling tool such as ©Strengthscope (www.strengthscope.com). The benefit of such a tool is that it provides a common language for people to start exploring their strengths and enables them to focus their energies on relevant opportunities to apply these more fully.

Develop Positive Action Routines

Self-awareness is crucial, but not sufficient. As part of ongoing performance dialogues, managers should work in partnership with employees to explore how their strengths can be made more productive, not only in the person’s current role, but in tasks and projects outside their role. Like professional athletes, employees need to build and practice positive routines or ways of doing their work which reflect who they really are and what comes most naturally to them. These action routines will result in successes which in turn will reinforce confidence.

Cultivate a Positive, Appreciative Environment

When people feel they have been successful and their efforts and achievements are recognised, it generates positive emotions and good moods. This positive emotion becomes contagious and boosts energy, morale and discretionary effort, fuelling the success cycle. By helping executives and line managers understand the importance of sharing and celebrating successes and putting in place organisation-wide mechanisms and processes for facilitating such sharing, a more positive performance culture will prevail. It is important that this is done across organisational boundaries as even others’ successes can make us feel more energised and positive provided these are communicated and celebrated in an appropriate manner. Authentic and frequent recognition and praise for a job well done at local line manager level is also essential in creating a culture where effort and hard work will flourish.

Ensure Leaders and Managers Model the Way

The “shadow of the leader” effect is strong at work in organisations. Leaders and managers should understand the impact that their values, attitudes and actions have on the workforce and should be invited to consider what type of “shadow” they cast now and how this can be strengthened in the future. In our experience, there are still too many leaders out there that cast a long and negative shadow, sapping energy and life from organisations. We would recommend educating and developing leaders and managers to understand and apply positive psychology and strengths-based concepts, principles and techniques in building a culture of success and confidence. This learning needs to be practical, relevant and ideally supported by on-the-job coaching in order to ensure maximum learning transfer.  This type of investment has an added benefit, as managers and leaders are more likely to stay with the organisation if it invests in their development and advancement. Improved retention and stability of leadership will in turn give rise to increased investment of time and trust by leaders in ensuring the organisation is a success and so the success cycle is amplified further.

Make Customer and Stakeholder Feedback Visible

Success brings positive feedback and rewards from customers and other stakeholders on the outside. However, employees often only hear about this feedback when failures occur or performance falls below expectations (e.g., when customers complain or when shareholders are unhappy with company performance). It is important to ensure this feedback is balanced and employees also get positive feedback from shareholders, customers and other stakeholders. This will all contribute to a more appreciative atmosphere and build confidence. One way to do this is to invite teams to interview their own customers (internal or external) and stakeholders using an appreciative inquiry interview process. Once the data has been analysed, this can then be reported back at a team meeting with a view to exploring successes, strengths, weaker areas and opportunities for improvement and growth.

Build Strong Cohesive Teams and Social Networks

Positive emotions produced through success strengthen relationships and give rise to a host of individual and team-based outcomes including improved collaboration, creative problem-solving and employee wellbeing. When people are in a positive frame of mind, they are more likely to be generous, supportive and tolerant of one another. This is turn reinforces teamwork and commitment. It also means people can more freely acknowledge their vulnerability (concerns, fears, etc.), admit their mistakes and learn from them.

self-confidence-1_s200x200

In summary, building a culture of confidence is largely about amplifying successes and strengths to ensure the ‘voices’ of possibility, optimism and self-belief drown out the ‘voices’ of self-doubt, negativity and pessimism. To turn around a failure cycle can be tough, particularly when successive failures have occurred, which have sapped the morale and energy from a team and/or organisation. However, like Moss Kanter, we contend that this is primarily a leadership challenge. With the right mindset, approaches and techniques, leaders, supported by their HR practitioners, can build accountability for the turnaround, focus on small ‘wins’ to start rebuilding confidence and inspire people to optimise their strengths and take initiative to get back on track again.

References

Moss Kanter, R (2004). Confidence: Leadership and the Psychology of Turnarounds. London: Random House.

http://www.strengthspartnership.com/blog/leadership-developments/building-a-culture-of-confidence-and-success/

Strategic Planning - Renew Your Organisation

Use Strategic Planning to 
Renew Your Organisation

Strategic planning can help you to improve the performance of your enterprise for the next several years.
How?
By steering you to find and focus on the handful of really big issues facing your organization.
It is the size and impact of these strategic issues that gives rise to the importance of the strategic plan.

Effective strategic planning requires only a handful of procedures.

• Start by engaging commitment
• Purpose guides everything
• Analyze the organization in its context 
• Decide strategies
• Evaluate plan execution.

Improve long-term performance of your organization, at dramatically reduced risk, with these five simple strategic planning process elements or procedures.

Let's look at each of these more closely-

Engage commitment from those people who will be affected by the plan

This is how you Start and ensure Support for planning, and the implementation of the plan. The people you need to include are primarily the Chief Executive Officer and their immediate reporting managers, and the layer of staff or management at one remove from the Chief Executive Officer (CEO).

In turn the CEO must engage with the governing body, who in turn engage the beneficiary groups they are there to represent. Other stakeholder groups may possibly be affected by the implementation of the strategic corporate plan in the operation of the enterprise. Their interests must be respected. It must be remembered that the processes for engaging people operate in various ways in all the other stages of the planning process.

Set long term strategic objectives for improved performance of the organization

These objectives should clearly further the enduring Purpose of the organisation. This means knowing and spelling out for whom the organization exists, and what benefit the organization seeks to provide this group. Every organization, whether private company or nonprofit organization (NPO), should set out to benefit one clearly defined group of beneficiaries, and a single, long term, verifiable, target figure should be set to reflect what it is trying to do for them. If it cannot set such a target, the organization should be reformed until this becomes possible.

The intended beneficiaries must be defined as one homogeneous group; in the case of the business enterprise it is the owners or shareholders.

The benefit offered must also be homogeneous and capable of definition in just a few words. In the business context, the proposed benefit is something like ‘increased wealth’. The benefit must be capable of being targeted and of empirical verification- essentially then, it must be quantifiable.

It must be of perceived significance to the beneficiaries, e.g. the benefit resulting from the point of view of the shareholders is ‘improved prospects for an acceptable mix of capital gains and dividends within a risk profile that is tolerable’.

Generate strategic options

Formal strategic planning calls for the Analysis of key strategic factors, shortlisting the really major strategic issues and thegeneration of Alternative strategies.

First, an attempt should be made to provide comprehensive strategies; that is, the plan should consider all the truly important factors - the strategic elephants.

Secondly the strategies should not exhaust all available resources. Something should be held in reserve. This recognizes uncertainty and adds flexibility to the plan.

Alternative strategies can improve the Adaptability of the organization in two ways.

First, by explicitly examining Alternatives, it is likely that the organization will find Alternatives that are superior to the current approach.

Second, the organization will encounter environmental changes; if Alternative, contingency, plans have been considered for these changes, the organization can respond more effectively.

Processes of finding all the relevant significant strategic factors will be covered on other pages about SWOT analysis, and methods forgenerating the Alternative strategies will be under Business Strategy, for companies, or nonprofit strategy making for other kinds of organization.

Evaluate and Decide on strategies

It is all too easy to go with the bright ideas that emerge from brainstorming strategic alternatives. Effective formal planning uses systematic methods for evaluating the various alternatives. Evaluate to ensure that they do not violate any constraints. Rate the strategic options against the objectives. Ensure that all major strategic issues are addressed.

Then you are in a position to Design a set of strategies, based on a few key Decisions.

With this done you can proceed with some confidence to get approval from the governing body, and convert the strategic intentions into specific work assignments for individual managers, prepare budgets and project plans, and generally prepare to implement the strategic plans.

Monitor Execution of the strategies against the long term objectives.

Having planned the work of implementing or Executing the strategic plan, you need a system in place for working the plans as they get implemented. The plan should provide for formal reporting at agreed intervals. To allow for corrective action, the monitoring system should address the same objectives and factors determined as significant through the planning process. Too often there is a disconnect between the plan and how it is managed into reality.

Notice the bold letters beginning some words in the text above?

All of the above essential procedures for strategic planning can be summarized as follows -

Practical Corporate Planning is as useful as a S P A D E

START -
Organizing to plan, engaging affected parties

PURPOSE -
Sizing up the strategic challenge, setting targets

ANALYSE –
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats, andgenerate options

DECIDE –
Devising Strategies from the options looked at

EXECUTE –
Evaluating and Actioning strategies

Put simply - find and decide what to do about the handful of really big issues facing your business or any other organization. We call these biggest issues ‘strategic elephants'.

The strategic planning process andtools, such as SWOT analysis, offered here will help you - directors, owners, managers - to find the elephants in your organization!

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領領力 - 習慣完敗新奇的祕密

習慣完敗新奇的祕密

How Habit Beats Novelty

出 處 / 2017年1月號(沒有留不住的顧客)

作 者 / 史考特．貝里納托 (Scott Berinato)

人是習慣的產物，因此對新奇視而不見。

我們的大腦使用探索和經驗，去決定某種東西是什麼，而且經常跳過某個場景裡意外或新奇的層面。神經科學家摩西．巴爾（Moshe Bar）認為，大腦「持續不斷忙於產生預測，以概略估算相關的未來」。他說：「我們在看某樣東西的時候，認為大腦在問這是什麼？其實，它問的是這像什麼？」也就是說，我們是在比對眼前得到的資訊，和我們以前遇到的東西。這個快速的預測流程，相當於老牌遊戲節目「美樂妙串」（Name That Tune）的心理版本。你聽的音樂愈多，需要辨識的音符愈少。辨識某樣東西需要花的精力愈少愈好。行銷人員的目標，是促使消費者只聽到一個音符就買那個品牌。不斷變化旋律和歌詞，是沒有幫助的。

我們對新奇視而不見的另一面是，某個物品愈保持一致性，大腦在辨識和選擇它時，需要做的工作愈少。早在1910年，研究人員就把這個現象稱為「熟悉的暖流」（warm glow of familiarity）；現在有神經系統方面的證據，證實它存在。汰漬是我們不用想太多就認出的產品實例。研究指出，我們對商店貨架上的布置、顏色、形狀和空間方向（依照這個順序）有反應。在稱為感知促發（perceptual priming）的流程中，大腦依賴這些線索。經過一段時間，它需要的資訊會減少，而且和辨識新的東西比起來，使用較少力氣去辨識熟悉的物品。

顯然，這是嚴密保守的祕密，因為行銷人員花了很多時間和金錢去創造新奇。但新瓶裝舊酒，可能不會產生預期的效果。改變代表讓一條產品線煥然一新，或是加強功能，實際上卻可能導致消費者在尋找他們習慣見到的東西時，忽視新的設計。在這種改變視盲（change blindness）的測試中，要求產品經理在貨架上找出新設計的公司品牌，結果他們自己也無法輕易達成要求。

（羅耀宗譯自“How Habit Beats Novelty,”HBR, January-February 2017）

領導力 - 意外狀況是新常態；韌性是新技能

意外狀況是新常態；韌性是新技能

Surprises Are the New Normal; Resilience Is the New Skill

成功者與失敗者的區別在於，他們如何處理失敗。

我正在進行有關卓越企業與高效能領導人的研究，其中的一個關鍵發現是：沒有人能完全避免碰到困境，潛在的陷阱無處不在，所以真正的技能，是要能脫離困境，以及反彈回來的韌性或復原力（resilience）。

動盪時期會帶來破壞、中斷與挫折，即使是最成功的人也不能避免。頂尖的公司也有猝不及防遭到競爭產品痛擊的時候，而必須急起直追。體育隊伍的常勝軍在比賽時往往成績落後。作家可能遭到幾十次拒絕，才找到一家出版商讓他們聞名於世。一些成功的政客也曾落入窘境，狼狽不堪，卻仍然繼續領導，儘管這種自己造成的創傷更難癒合。

韌性是能夠從笨拙的失誤或徹頭徹尾的錯誤中復原的能力。但是光有彈性是不夠的，你必須從自己的錯誤中學習。具有韌性的人在下列的信心基石上繼續壯大：問責制（表示悔意並承擔責任）、協力合作（支持他人達成共同目標）、主動性（聚焦於積極的步驟並改進）。正如我的書《信心》（Confidence）中概述的，這些因素鞏固了人們、團隊和組織的韌性，他們可能失足跌倒，但會重新贏得勝利。

對於想要超越逆境或捲土重來絕不放棄的人，美國是第二次機會之地（the Land of Second Chances）。前美國駐中國大使洪博培（Jon Huntsman）曾說，重新振作是美國人的優點，在中國廣受讚譽。在世界各地，能夠從天然災害中快速恢復，已日益成為經濟強盛的關鍵。企業家和創新者必須願意失敗，然後再接再厲嘗試。重點不是學習失敗，而是要學會恢復。

跌跌撞撞有時是由於環境因素，這是大多數人無法控制的，包括天氣現象和地緣政治的衝擊。不過，人們雖然可能無法控制較大的問題，但可以控制自己對問題的反應，看是要放棄或另闢蹊徑。歐洲的經濟衰退就是一例。我最近在公開會議和多家企業內向歐洲聽眾談到，即使市場正在萎縮，仍應該要培養自家企業的韌性，以便公司能在經濟持續衰退時支撐得住，並作好準備迎向復甦。德國一家機械公司表現出韌性，在市場對機器的需求減緩時，它增加服務合約，並動員員工找到新的服務機會。一家義大利化妝品公司從裁員的跨國公司網羅人才，並增加和保健與時尚相關的國際行銷活動；新的銷售隨之而來。正如我在《超級公司》（SuperCorp）一書中描述的其他公司，這兩家公司的這些措施來自強烈的目的感，這種目的感吸引成員團結在一起，激勵他們負起責任，協助公司生存及繁榮發展。員工有韌性，因為他們關心在意，這讓公司也具有韌性。

自滿、傲慢和貪婪會排除韌性。謙遜和高尚的目的會強化韌性。真心想要服務的人（而非只想爬上頂峰的自戀者），願意接受較少報酬，把這當成是投資，以取得日後更好的回報。法國前總理雷蒙．巴爾（Raymond Barre）在國家層級的選舉中競選連任落敗後，改而競選層級較低的里昂（Lyon）市長，成為所在地區的英雄。這是艾略特．史畢哲（Eliot Spitzer）正在採取的策略，他曾擔任過州長，後來去競選層級較低的市長。他在召妓醜聞浮上檯面後迅速表示悔意，然後重新參與公眾的對話，談論那些問題，增加了他復出的可能性。

一些觀察家說，女性要東山再起更加困難。不過，來看看瑪莎．史都華（Martha Stewart）。她因內幕交易而入監服刑，表現優雅，並展出悔恨之意，她的優雅表現後來為她保住了大部分的粉絲。更積極的例子是希拉蕊．柯林頓（Hillary Clinton），她在2008年總統選舉敗於歐巴馬（Obama），風度良好（雖然她的一些追隨者表現出輸不起的樣子），並接受了他的提議，出任國務卿。她要問鼎2016年的總統大選，現在的條件甚至更勝從前。從長遠來看，優雅的風度打敗尖酸刻薄的態度。

韌性來自堅毅的性格，來自一組核心的價值觀，那些價值觀激勵人們努力戰勝挫折，重回邁向成功的道路。韌性包括自我控制，並且願意承認自己在挫敗中應負的責任。韌性也會基於群體感而增強：因為對他人有義務，以及獲得志同道合者的支持，而期許自己跌倒後重新振作起來。韌性表現在行動上：新的貢獻，小小的勝利，能夠放下過去、引發對未來興奮之情的目標。

潛在的困難潛伏在各個角落，無論是來自意想不到的環境變動，或個人的缺點與錯誤。無論來源為何，重要的是我們如何對付它們。當意外狀況是新常態時，韌性是新技能。（侯秀琴譯）

羅莎貝絲．肯特（Rosabeth Moss Kanter）

哈佛商學院教授，並擔任哈佛先進領導計畫（Harvard Advanced Leadership Initiative）主席暨主任。她曾多次為《哈佛商業評論》撰文，最近的一篇是〈反敗為勝領導力〉（Leadership and the Psychology of Turnarounds，刊於《哈佛商業評論》全球繁體中文版2014年8月號）。她最新出版的書籍為《動起來：讓美國基礎建設重回領先地位》（MOVE: Putting America’s Infrastructure Back in the Lead）。

Surprises Are the New Normal; Resilience Is the New Skill

Rosabeth Moss Kanter

The difference between winners and losers is how they handle losing.

That’s a key finding from my ongoing research on great companies and effective leaders: no one can completely avoid troubles and potential pitfalls are everywhere, so the real skill is the resilience to climb out of the hole and bounce back.

Volatile times bring disruptions, interruptions, and setbacks, even for the most successful among us. Companies at the top of the heap still have times when they are blindsided by a competing product and must play catch-up. Sports teams that win regularly are often behind during the game. Writers can face dozens of rejections before finding a publisher that puts them on the map. Some successful politicians get caught with their pants down (so to speak) and still go on to lead, although such self-inflicted wounds are harder to heal.

Resilience is the ability to recover from fumbles or outright mistakes and bounce back. But flexibility alone is not enough. You have to learn from your errors. Those with resilience build on the cornerstones of confidence — accountability (taking responsibility and showing remorse), collaboration (supporting others in reaching a common goal), and initiative (focusing on positive steps and improvements). As outlined in my book Confidence, these factors underpin the resilience of people, teams, and organizations that can stumble but resume winning.

For anyone who wants to get beyond adversity or start over rather than give up, America is the Land of Second Chances. According to Jon Huntsman, former US Ambassador to China, getting back on our feet is an American strength widely admired in China. And everywhere, rapid recovery from natural disasters is increasingly a key to a robust economy. Entrepreneurs and innovators must be willing to fail and try again. The point isn’t to learn to fail, it is to learn to bounce back.

Some stumbles are due to circumstances outside of most people’s control, including weather events and geopolitical shocks. But while people might not control the larger problem, they control their reactions to it — whether to give up or find a new path. Recession in Europe is an example. I recently spoke to European audiences at public conferences and within companies about cultivating resilience in their businesses even when markets are shrinking, so that they hold their own as recession continues and are well-positioned for recovery. A German machinery company showed resilience by growing its service contracts when demand for machines slowed, and it mobilized employees to find new service possibilities. An Italian cosmetics firm grabbed talent from job-shedding multinationals and increased its international marketing tied to both health and fashion; new sales followed. In both companies, like others described in my book SuperCorp, such initiatives were made possible by a strong sense of purpose that drew members together and motivated them to take responsibility to help the companies survive and thrive. Employees were resilient because they cared, and that made the companies resilient.

Complacency, arrogance, and greed crowd out resilience. Humility and a noble purpose fuel it. Those with an authentic desire to serve, not just narcissism about wanting to be at the top, are willing to settle for less as an investment in better things later. Raymond Barre, former Premier of France, after being defeated for reelection at the national level, ran for a lesser office as Mayor of Lyon and became a hero of his region. That’s the strategy Eliot Spitzer is taking by running for a lesser city office after having been governor of a state. He showed remorse quickly when scandal surfaced and then reentered the public conversation talking about the issues, increasing his comeback prospects.

Some observers say it is harder for women to stage comebacks. Still, consider Martha Stewart. She served prison time for insider trading rather graciously, showing remorse, and that graciousness restored much of her fan base afterward. In a more positive vein, Hillary Clinton was not a sore loser to President Obama in 2008 (though some of her followers were) and accepted his offer to become his Secretary of State. She’s now perhaps even better-positioned for a 2016 Presidential run. In the long term, graciousness beats sour grapes.

Resilience draws from strength of character, from a core set of values that motivate efforts to overcome the setback and resume walking the path to success. It involves self-control and willingness to acknowledge one’s own role in defeat. Resilience also thrives on a sense of community — the desire to pick oneself up because of an obligation to others and because of support from others who want the same thing. Resilience is manifested in actions — a new contribution, a small win, a goal that takes attention off of the past and creates excitement about the future.

Potential troubles lurk around every corner, whether they stem from unexpected environmental jolts or individual flaws and mistakes. Whatever the source, what matters is how we deal with them. When surprises are the new normal, resilience is the new skill.